THE
VIEW FROM WALDEN
(from
Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New
England
(New York: Hill & Wang) 1983. By William Cronon, c. William
Cronon
On
the morning of January ~, 1855, Henry David Thoreau sat down with
his journal to consider the ways in which his Concord home had
been altered by more than two centuries of European settlement.
He had recently read the book New England’s Prospect, in
which the English traveler William Wood recounted his 1633 voyage
to southern New England and described for English readers the
landscape he had found there. Now Thoreau sought to annotate the
ways in which Wood’s Massachusetts was different from his
own. The changes seemed sweeping indeed.1
He
began with the wild meadow grasses, which appeared, he wrote,
“to have grown more rankly in those days.” If Wood’s
descriptions were accurate, the strawberries too had been larger
and more abundant “before they were so cornered up by cultivation.”
Some of them had been as much as two inches around, so numerous
one could gather half a bushel in a forenoon. Equally abundant
were gooseberries, raspberries, and especially currants, which,
Thoreau mused, “so many old writers speak of, but so few
moderns find wild.”
England
forests had been much more extensive and their trees larger in
1633. On the coast, where Indian settlement had been greatest,
the woods had presented a more open and parklike appearance to
the first English settlers, without the underbrush and coppice
growth so common in nineteenth-century Concord. To see such a
forest nowadays, Thoreau wrote, it was necessary to make an expedition
to “the sample still left in Maine.” As nearly as
he could tell, oaks, firs, plums, and tulip trees were all less
numerous than they had been in Wood’s day.
But
if the forest was much reduced from its former state, most of
its tree species nevertheless remained. This was more than could
be said for many of its animal inhabitants. Thoreau’s list
of those that were now absent was stark: “bear, moose, deer,
porcupines, ‘the grim-fac’d Ounce, and rav’nous
howling Wolf,’ and beaver. Martens.” Not only the
mammals of the land were gone; the sea and air also seemed more
empty. Bass had once been caught two or three thousand at a time.
The progeny of the alewives had been “almost incredible.”
Neither was now present in such abundance. Of the birds, Thoreau
wrote: “Eagles are probably less common; pigeons of course..,
heath cocks all gone ... and turkeys... Probably more owls then,
and cormorants, etc., etc., sea-fowl generally.., and swans.”
To Wood’s statement that one could purchase a fresh-killed
swan for dinner at the price of six shillings, Thoreau could only
write in wonderment, “Think of that!”
There
is a certain plaintiveness in this catalog of Thoreau’s,
a romantic’s lament for the pristine world of an earlier
and now lost time. The myth of a fallen humanity in a fallen world
is never far beneath the surface in Thoreau’s writing, and
nowhere is this more visible than in his descriptions of past
landscapes. A year after his encounter with William Wood’s
New England of 1633, he returned to its lessons in more explicitly
moral language. “When I consider,” he wrote, “that
the nobler animals have been exterminated here,—the cougar,
panther, lynx, wolverene, wolf, bear, moose, deer, the beaver,
the turkey, etc., etc.,—I cannot but feel as if I lived
in a tamed, and, as it were, emasculated country.” Seen
in this way, a changed landscape meant a loss of wildness and
virility that was ultimately spiritual in its import, a sign of
declension in both nature and humanity. “Is it not,”
Thoreau asked, “a maimed and imperfect nature that I am
conversant with?”2
It
is important that we answer this question of Thoreau’s carefully:
how did the “nature” of New England change with the
coming of the Europeans, and can we reasonably speak of its changes
in terms of maiming and imperfection? There is nothing new to
the observation that European settlement transformed the American
landscape. Long before Thoreau, naturalists and historians alike
were commenting on the process which was converting a “wilderness”
into a land of European agricultural settlement. Whether they
wrote of Indians, the fur trade, the forest, or the farm, colonial
authors were constantly aware that fundamental alterations of
the ecological fabric were taking place around them. The awareness
increased as time went on. By the late eighteenth century, many
individuals—Peter Kaim, Peter Whitney, Jeremy Belknap, and
Timothy Dwight chief among them—were commenting extensively
on these changes.
For
the most part, unlike Thoreau, they did so approvingly. As early
as 1653, the historian Edward Johnson could count it as one of
God’s providences that a “remote, rocky, barren, bushy,
wildwoody wilderness” had been transformed in a generation
into a second England for fertileness.” In this vision,
the transformation of wilderness betokened the planting of a garden,
not the fall from one; any change in the New England environment
was divinely ordained and wholly positive. By the end of the eighteenth
century, the metaphors for environmental change had become more
humanistic than providential, but were no less enthusiastic about
the progress such change represented. In a passage partially anticipating
Frederick Jackson Turner’s frontier thesis, for instance,
Benjamin Rush described a regular sequence for clearing the forest
and civilizing the wilderness. “From a review [ofl the three
different species of settlers” he wrote, speaking of Pennsylvania,
“it appears, that there are certain regular changes which
mark the progress from the savage to civilized life. The first
settler is nearly related to an Indian in his manners— In
the second, the Indian manners are more diluted. It is in the
third species of settlers only, that we behold civilization completed.”
Though landscape was altered by this supposed social evolution,
the buman process of development—from Indian to clearer
of the forest to prosperous farmer—was the center of Rush’s
attention. Environmental change was of secondary interest. For
Enlightenment thinkers like Rush, in each stage, the shape of
the landscape was a visible confirmation of the state of human
society. Both underwent an evolutionary development from savagery
to civilization.3
Whether
interpreted as declension or progress, the shift from Thoreau’s
forest of “nobler animals” to Rush’s fields
and pastures of prosperous farmers signaled a genuinely transformed
countryside, one whose changes were intimately bound to the human
history which had taken place in its midst. The replacement of
Indians by predominantly European populations in New England was
as much an ecological as a cultural revolution, and the human
side of that revolution cannot be fully understood until it is
embedded in the ecological one. Doing so requires a history, not
only of human actors, conflicts, and economies, but of ecosystems
as well.
How
might we construct such an ecological history? The types of evidence
which can be used to evaluate ecological change before i8oo are
not uniformly reliable, and some are of a sort not ordinarily
used by historians. It is therefore important to reflect on how
they should best be criticized and used. The descriptions of travelers
and early naturalists, for instance, provide observations of what
New England looked like in the early days of European settlement,
and how it had changed by the end of the eighteenth century. As
such, they provide the backbone of this study. But to use them
properly requires that we evaluate each traveler’s skills
as a naturalist, something for which there is often only the evidence
of his or her writings. Moreover, we can only guess at how ideological
commitments such as Thoreau’s or Rush’s colored the
ways they saw the landscape. How much did William Wood’s
evident wish to promote the Massachusetts Bay Colony lead him
to idealize its environment? To what extent did the anonymous
author of American Husbandry shape his critique of American agriculture
to serve his purpose of preserving colonial attachments to Britain?
Even if we can remove most of these ideological biases to discover
what it was a traveler actually saw, we must still acknowledge
that each traveler visited only a tiny fraction of the region.
As Timothy Dwight once remarked, “Your travelers seize on
a single person, or a solitary fact, and make them the representatives
of a whole community and a general custom.” We are always
faced with the problem of generalizing from a local description
to a regional landscape, but our understanding of modern ecosystems
can be of great help in doing so.4
A
second fund of data resides in various colonial town, court, and
legislative records, although here the evidence of ecological
change can sometimes be tantalizingly elliptical. We cannot always
know with certainty whether a governmental action anticipated
or reacted to a change in the environment. When a law was passed
protecting trees on a town commons, for example, did this mean
that a timber shortage existed? Or was the town merely responding
with prudent foresight to the experience of other localities?
If a shortage existed, how severe was it? Was it limited only
to certain species of trees? And so on. Only by looking at the
overall pattern of legal activity can we render a reasonable judgment
on such questions. These problems notwithstanding, town and colony
records address almost the entire range of ecological changes
in colonial New England: deforestation, the keeping of livestock,
conflicts between Indians and colonists over property boundaries,
the extermination of predators such as wolves, and similar matters.
Deeds and surveyor records can be used statistically to estimate
the composition of early forests, and are usually more accurate
than travelers’ accounts even though subject to sampling
errors.5
Then
there are the less orthodox sorts of evidence which historians
borrow from other disciplines and have less experience in criticizing.
Relict stands of old-growth timber, such as the
Cathedral Pines near Cornwall, Connecticut, can suggest what earlier
forests may have looked like. The relict stands which exist today,
however, are by no means identical to most of the forests which
existed in colonial times, so that the record of earlier must
be sought in less visible places. Ecologists have done very creative
detective work in analyzing tree rings, charcoal posits, rotting
trunks, and overturned stumps to determine the history of several
New England woodlands. The fossil pollen in pond and bog sediments
is a reliable but fuzzy indicator of the changing species composition
of surrounding vegetation; despite problems in determining the
absolute age of such pollen, it supplies some of the most reliable
evidence for reconstructing past forests. In addition, a wide
variety of archaeological evidence can to assess past environments,
particularly the changing of human inhabitants to them.
Finally, there are those awkward situations in which an ecological
change which undoubtedly must have been occurring in the colonial
period has left little or no historical evidence at all. These
include microscopic changes in soil fauna and flora, soil compaction,
changes in the transpiration rates of forests, and so on. Here
all arguments become somewhat speculative. Given what we know
of ecosystem dynamics, however, it would be wrong simply to ignore
such changes, since some of them almost certainly occurred even
though no one noticed them at the time. I will occasionally appeal
to modern ecological literature to assert the probability of such
changes, and trust that, by so doing, I am not straying too far
from the historian’s usual canon for evaluating evidence.
Silences in the historical record sometimes require us to make
the best-informed interpolations we can, and I have tried always
to be conservative on the few occasions when I have been forced
to do this.
Although
caution is required in handling all these various forms of evidence
(and nonevidence), together they provide a remarkably full portrait
of ecological change in colonial New England. But they also raise
intriguing questions, questions which are both empirical and theoretical.
One, for instance, follows directly from the imprecision of the
data: travelers’ accounts and other colonial writings are
not only subjective but often highly generalized. Colonial nomenclature
could be quite imprecise, so much so that the French traveler
Chastellux wrote of the impoverishment of American English as
a result:
Anything
that had no English name has here been given only a simple designation:
the jay is the blue bird, the cardinal the red bird; every water
bird is simply a duck, from the teal to the wood duck, and to
the large black duck which we do not have in Europe. They call
them “red ducks,” “black ducks,” “wood
ducks.” It is the same with respect to their trees: the
pine, the cypresses, the firs, are all included under the general
name of “pine trees.”
More
confusing still could be the natural tendency for colonists to
apply European names to American species which only superficially
resembled their counterparts across the ocean.’
The
problems which this fuzzy nomenclature can create for those doing
ecological history should be obvious. For instance, many early
descriptions, including those by William Wood, make no mention
at all of hemlock, although they do mention fir and spruce. On
just such evidence, Thoreau concluded—incorrectly—that
the fir tree had been much more common in colonial times. But
since fir and spruce are now largely absent in southern New England,
and since fossil pollen shows that hemlock has long been a significant
component of the New England forest, it seems reasonable to conclude
that “hemlock” was subsumed by colonists under the
names of “fir,” “spruce,” and probably
“pine.” But how common was it? Only the fossil pollen
can tell us. As another example, the hickory was rarely mentioned
by name, but instead was for a long time known as the “walnut,”
an entirely different genus of tree. Because white pine was valuable
economically, many early visitors seem to have seen it everywhere,
thus leading them to exaggerate its numerical significance. Colonists
confused the native junipers with European cedars for the same
economic reasons, so that the red cedar has carried a misleading
name ever since. All of these problems of nomenclature must be
borne in mind if one is not to give a distorted picture of the
colonial ecosystem.8
A
second difficulty is the old and familiar fallacy of post hoc
ergo propter hoc.9 When reading colonial accounts describing floods,
insect invasions, coastal alterations, and significant changes
in climate, we are perhaps all too tempted to attribute these
by some devious means to the influence of the arriving Europeans.
This will not always do. Not all the environmental changes which
took place after European settlement were caused by it. Some were
part of much longer trends, and some were random: neither have
had anything to do with the Europeans. Trickier are instances
where Europeans may or may not have altered the rate at which
a change was already occurring. Unless one can some plausible
mechanism whereby settlement could and probably did cause a change,
it seems best not to attribute it to influence. One cannot escape
the fallacy altogether— any discussion of causality in history
must encounter it with some frequency—but one must at least
be aware of when one is flirting with it. I shall have occasion
to do so here.•
This
brings us to the heart of the theoretical difficulties involved
in doing ecological history.
When one asks how much an ecosystem has been changed by human
influence, the inevitable next question must be: “changed
in relation to what?” There is simple answer to this. Before
we can analyze the ways people alter their environments, we must
first consider how those environments change in the absence of
human activity, and that in turn requires us to reflect on what
we mean by an ecological community.” Ecology as a biological
science has had to deal with this problem from its outset. The
first generation of academic ecologists, led by Frederic Clements,
defined the communities they studied literally as superorganisms
which experienced birth, growth, maturity, and sometimes death
much as individual plants and animals did. Under this model, the
central dynamic of community change could be expressed in the
concept “succession.” Depending on its region, a biotic
community might begin as a pond, which was then gradually transformed
by own internal dynamics into a marsh, a meadow, a forest of pioneer
trees, and finally to a forest of dominant trees. This last age
was assumed to be stable and was known as the “climax,”
more or less permanent community which would reproduce self indefinitely
if left undisturbed. Its equilibrium state defined ie mature forest
“organism,” so that all members of the community could
be interpreted as functioning to maintain the stability the whole.
Here was an apparently objective point of reference: any actual
community could be compared with the theoretical climax, and differences
between them could then usually be contributed to “disturbance.”
Often the source of disturbance was human, implying that humanity
was somehow outside of the ‘ideal climax community.’0
This functionalist emphasis on equilibrium and climax had important
consequences, for it tended to remove ecological communities from
history. If all ecological change was either selfequilibrating
(moving toward climax) or nonexistent (remaining he static condition
of climax), then history was more or less nt except in the very
long time frame of climatic change or Darwinian evolution. The
result was a paradox. Ecologists try-to define climax and succession
for a region like New England were faced with an environment massively
altered by human beings, yet their research program demanded that
they ‘mine what that environment would have been like without
human presence. By peeling away the corrupting influences of man
and woman, they could discover the original ideal community of
the climax. One detects here a certain resemblance to Thoreau’s
reading of William Wood: historical change was defined as an aberration
rather than the norm.1’
In
time, the analogy comparing biotic communities to organisms came
to be criticized for being both too monolithic and too teleological.
The model forced one to assume that any given community was gradually
working either to become or to remain a climax, with the result
that the dynamics of nonclimax communities were too easily ignored.
For this reason, ecology by the mid-twentieth century had abandoned
the organism metaphor in favor of a less teleological “ecosystem.”
Now individual species could simply be described in terms of their
associations with other species along a continuous range of environments;
there was no longer any need to resort to functional analysis
in describing such associations. Actual relationships rather than
mystical superorganisms could become the focus of study, although
an infusion of theory from cybernetics encouraged ecologists to
continue their interest in the self-regulating, equilibrating
characteristics of plant and animal populations.’2
With
the imperatives of the climax concept no longer so strong~ ecology
was prepared to become at least in part a historical science,
for which change was less the result of “disturbance”
than of the ordinary processes whereby communities maintained
and transformed themselves. Ecologists began to express a stronger
interest in the effects of human beings on their environment.
What investigators had earlier seen as an inconvenient block to
the discovery of ideal climax communities could become an object
of research in its own right. But accepting the effects of human
beings was only part of this shift toward a more historical ecology.
Just as ecosystems have been changed by the historical activities
of human beings, so too have they had their own less-recorded
history: forests have been transformed by disease, drought, and
fire, species have become extinct, and landscapes have been drastically
altered by climatic change without any human intervention at all.
As we shall see, the period of human occupation in postglacial
New England has seen environmental changes on an enormous scale,
many of them wholly apart from human influence. There has been
no timeless wilderness in a state of perfect changelessness, no
climax forest in permanent stasis.
But
admitting that ecosystems have histories of their own still leaves
us with the problem of how to view the people who inhabit them.
Are human beings inside or outside their systems? In trying to
answer this question, appeal is too often made to the myth of
a golden age, as Thoreau sometimes seemed inclined to do. If the
nature of Concord in the i8~os—a nature which many Americans
now romanticize as the idyllic world of Thoreau’s own Walden—was
as “maimed” and “imperfect” as he said,
what are we to make of the wholeness and perfection which he thought
preceded it? It is tempting to believe that when the Europeans
arrived in the New World they confronted Virgin Land, the Forest
Primeval, a wilderness which had existed for eons uninfluenced
by human hands. Nothing could be further from the truth. In Francis
Jennings’s telling phrase, the land was less virgin than
it was widowed. Indians had lived on the continent for thousands
of years, and had to a significant extent modified its environment
to their purposes. Fhe destruction of Indian communities in fact
brought some of the most important ecological changes which followed
the Europeans’ arrival in America. The choice is not between
two landscapes, one with and one without a human influence; it
is between two human ways of living, two ways of belonging to
an ecosystem.
The
riddle of this book is to explore why these different ways of
living had such different effects on New England ecosystems. A
group of ecological anthropologists has tried to argue that for
many non-Western societies, like those of the New England Indians,
various ritual practices have served to stabilize people’s
relationships with their ecosystems. In effect, culture in this
anthropological model becomes a homeostatic, self-regulating system
much like the larger ecosystem itself. Thus have come the now
famous analyses designed to show that the slaughter of pigs in
New Guinea, the keeping of sacred cows in India, and any number
of other ritual activities, all function to keep human populations
in balance with their ecosystems. Such a view would describe precolonial
New England not as a virgin landscape of natural harmony but as
a landscape whose essential characteristics were kept in equilibrium
by the cultural practices of its human community.
Unfortunately,
this functional approach to culture has the same penchant for
teleology as does the organism model of ecological climax. Saying
that a community’s rituals and social institutions “function”
unconsciously to stabilize its ecological relationships can lead
all too quickly into a static and ahistorical view of both cultural
agency and ecological change. If we assume a priori that cultures
are systems which tend toward ecological stability, we may overlook
the evidence from many cultures— even preindustrial ones—that
human groups often have significantly unstable interactions with
their environments. When we say, for instance, that the New England
Indians burned forests to clear land for agriculture and to improve
hunting, we describe only what they themselves thought the purpose
of burning to be. But to go further than this and assert its unconscious
“function~~ in stabilizing Indian relationships with the
ecosystem is to deny the evidence from places like Boston and
Narragansett Bay that the practice could sometimes go so far as
to remove the forest altogether, with deleterious effects for
trees and Indians alike.
All
human groups consciously change their environments to some extent—one
might even argue that this, in combination with language, is the
crucial trait distinguishing people from other animals—and
the best measure of a culture’s ecological stability may
well be how successfully its environmental changes maintain its
ability to reproduce itself. But if we avoid assumptions about
environmental equilibrium, the instability of human relations
with the environment can be used to explain both cultural and
ecological transformations. An ecological history begins by assuming
a dynamic and changing relationship between environment and culture,
one as apt to produce contradictions as continuities. Moreover,
it assumes that the interactions of the two are dialectical. Environment
may initially shape the range of choices available to a people
at a given moment, but then culture reshapes environment in responding
to those choices. The reshaped environment presents a new set
of possibilities for cultural reproduction, thus setting up a
new cycle of mutual determination. Changes in the way people create
and re-create their livelihood must be analyzed in terms of changes
not only in their social relations but in their ecological ones
as well.
Doing
away with functionalism does not mean abandoning the system-oriented
perspective which an ecological approach allows. In addition to
assuming that relations between people and
their environment are not constant, but rather historical and
dialectical, it sees those relations as being connected within
an interacting system. Efforts to describe ecological history
simply in terms of the transfer of individual species between
segregated ecosystems, as Alfred Crosby and William H. McNeill
have done, are thus bound to be incomplete.’6 Important
as organisms like smallpox, the horse, and the pig were in their
direct impact on American ecosystems, their full effect becomes
visible only when they are treated as integral elements in a complex
system of environmental and cultural relationships. The pig was
not merely a pig but a creature bound among other things to the
fence, the dandelion, and a very special definition of property.
It is these kinds of relationships, the contradictions arising
from them, and their changes in time, that will constitute an
ecological approach to history.
The
study of such relations is usually best done at the local level,
where they become most visible; the best ecological histories
to date have all examined relatively small systems as cases. I
have opted for a similar approach, albeit for a somewhat larger
region. But despite its strengths, the choice of a small region
has one crucial problem: how do we locate its boundaries? Traditionally
in anthropology, this has simply involved the area within which
people conduct their subsistence activities, often described using
“ethnoecological” techniques which analyze the way
the inhabitants themselves conceive of their territory.’7
Yet anthropologists are increasingly aware, as historians have
long known, that the development of a world capitalist system
has brought more and more people into trade and market relations
which lie well beyond the boundaries of their local ecosystems.
Explaining environmental changes under these circumstances—
as in the shift from Indian to European populations in colonial
New England—becomes even more complex than explaining changes
internal to a local ecosystem. In an important sense, a distant
world and its inhabitants gradually become part of another people’s
ecosystem, so that it is increasingly difficult to know which
ecosystem is interacting with which culture. This erasure of boundaries
may itself be the most important issue of all.
In
colonial New England, two sets of human communities which were
also two sets of ecological relationships confronted each other,
one Indian and one European. They rapidly came to inhabit a single
world, but in the process the landscape of New England was so
transformed that the Indians’ earlier way of interacting
with their environment became impossible. The task before us is
not only to describe the ecological changes that took place in
New England but to determine what it was about Indians and colonists—in
their relations both to nature and to each other—that brought
those changes about. Only thus can we understand why the Indian
landscape of precolonial times had become the much altered place
Thoreau described in the nineteenth century.
The
view from Walden in reality contained far more than Thoreau saw
that January morning in 1855. Its relationships stretched beyond
the horizons of Concord to include vistas of towns and markets
and landscapes that were not in Thoreau’s field of vision.
If only for this reason, we must beware of following him too closely
as our guide in these matters. However we may respect his passion,
we must also recognize its limits:
I
take infinite pains to know all the phenomena of the spring, for
instance, thinking that I have here the entire poem, and then,
to my chagrin, I hear that it is but an imperfect copy that I
possess and have read, that my ancestors have torn out many of
the first leaves and grandest passages, and mutilated it in many
places. I should not like to think that some demigod had come
before me and picked out some of the best of the stars. I wish
to know an entire heaven and an entire earth.
We
may or may not finally agree with Thoreau in regretting the changes
which European settlers wrought in the New World, but we can never
share his certainty about the possibility of knowing an entire
heaven and an entire earth. Human and natural worlds are too entangled
for us, and our historical landscape does not allow us to guess
what the “entire poem” of which he spoke might look
like. To search for that poem would in fact be a mistake. Our
project must be to locate a nature which is within rather than
without history, for only by so doing can we find human communities
which are inside rather than outside nature.