In an increasingly complex, global society, Massachusetts looks to its education system to produce productive and competent citizens. Schools are expected to take on many of the responsbilities that once belonged to the home or church, and to help cure social ills. How will the state and its communities make the commitment and build the partnerships needed to close the gap between the promise and reality of education for democracy?
Throughout its long history, education and society in Massachusetts have been interconnected--- through traditional ways during times of continuity--- and through reform during times of change.
17th century: FROM OLD WORLD TO NEW ---
Piety, civility and learning for a Puritan society
18th century: FROM COLONY TO COMMONWEALTH ---
Education for a productive and independent society
19th century: FROM STATE TO NATION ---
An educational system for enterprising individuals in an industrialized
society
20th century: METROPOLITAN MASSACHUSETTS IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE
Thinking skills and opportunities to achieve in a diverse, complex
changing world.
Trace the main themes for each century (or period you are studying). What traditions and what reforms do you see as most important? What patterns repeat themselves? Compare methods of learning during different centuries (or periods of time).
Histories of education - can be viewed from different levels: local, state, national and international and comparisons can be made. Have students read different books and articles critically to find out focus, writer’s perspective and the occasion for writing the book (bicentennial, etc.) Many are self-congratulatory and do not investigate results of statutes or programs. Sometimes established laws and programs are summarized, but not the results. Find out the difference between rhetoric and reality, proposed programs and outcomes.
Relationship between education and society -Describe the process by which the two interrelate during your study period. Which initiates change? How is it imparted? Effects and impacts?
Aims of education: knowledge is needed for what? Earn a living? Citizenship? Power? Have society's expectations of schools changed? The local angle can make the overview more relevant. Have students read old school reports, report cards, news articles as well as more recent..
Exclusiveness and inclusiveness: Who is left out of education during different periods of time (Puritans to Present)? Why? How does change come about? Does change in educational opportunity precede or follow changes in society?
Who pays for education? How does the financial basis affect who and what are covered? What is the relationship between the education system, values and the economic system?
Roles of non formal education (family, church, work, society) and formal (school)?
Learning environment: How do children learn about the world around them? How much learning inside a classroom, without? How does the environment of the classroom affect learning? What kinds of classroom teaching aids are most helpful, most distracting? Study school building conditions and resources for learning and make comparisons over time.
Heroes and heroines: Find out who has made a difference in Massachusetts education on a large scale. What programs and institutions have been most helpful? Harmful? Look into your own area for the heroes and heroines on a smaller scale. What criteria will you use to judge? You can narrow down to a particular period of time and define areas to consider (subjects, buildings, programs, etc.).
Assumptions about the nature of children: Trace changing attitudes in Massachusetts (and the country) and determine who decided what education was appropriate and how decisions were made. For example, the Puritans believed in an authoritarian family structure. The parental authority (and minister's) were absolute, and children were to be obedient and respectful. The laws of the Bible were the most important moral guides. Good manners were more important than knowledge. How has this changed?
Effect of wars on education: Study the effect of economics, of course, but also the climate of the times-what children were supposed to learn, what was "patriotic" and how sacrifices were to be made.
English customs and patterns. Trace the locations in England from where settlers emigrated to your community (or original 17th c. town in your area). What can you find out about their reasons for coming, how they set up the new town and which customs were transplanted, which left behind? Tie into attitudes toward education, children.
Native contact and exchange: Find out if your area had any experiences with Natives with trade, treaties, and wars. Which Native ways were copied by the colonial people and which Colonial ways became adapted by the Native people? Relate these ways to educating youth.
Slave Trade: How did trading patterns with other countries, especially England, influence the beginning of the slave trade into Massachusetts? How did this aspect of society conflict/agree with government and religious aims? Who benefitted from the slave trade? Who were the people opposed? What did Africans and Native People have in common and how did they differ in terms of being "outsiders" in the Puritan Commonwealth? Why did the government try to educate "friendly" Indians but not Africans?
Role of Puritan Religion important in shaping colonial values, morality, education. Why did Puritans think literacy was so important? Why did they set up a college and encourage the study of Latin and Greek for those favored to enter? How did the religious role change over time, from past to present? What led up to the separation of church and state?
Government: The growth of towns and local autonomy: Originally the City upon the Hill was the Mass. Colony aim of "Governor Winthrop and Company", with clustered towns around a central "capitol" and centralized laws such as the first education laws. Why didn't this last and how did towns show their independence? As towns in rural MA spread out, decentralization occurred in most affairs, including schooling. What did this mean in terms of schools? Compare the pattern of Boston public schooling with a more rural town (pick one in your area) to determine resources, standards, etc.
Superstitions: Many 17th century people thought the day of doom was coming. Sermons and books encouraged this concept, and astrological signs were closely followed. Find out more about the climate of the late 17th c. when many (mostly women) were considered witches and hung for their beliefs. What did the leaders say during this time? What kind of legal protections were there for the accused? How did superstitions relate to education? Why was the second generation different from the first settlers in its attitudes toward the Natives, education and superstitutions?
French & Indian Wars and the English-French colonial rivalry: Look into the relationship of Indian tribes to the two major colonial powers. How were Natives used and what was their stake in changing territorial borders? How was the growth of towns and services (like schooling) affected? Relate maps and population charts to time periods to see the correlation between these wars and when new towns developed. See maps in The Historical Atlas of Massachusetts (check school library for copy.).
Population studies: After the final treaty with France in 1763, the first Massachusetts census was taken in 1765. What is the makeup of the colony at this time? Look at the numbers of towns, people, and nationalities and compare with today. See if your library has a copy of The Historical Atlas of Massachusetts for map and population information.
18th Century growth of mercantilism: trade competition with England was a big isssue leading up to Revolution. How did the maritime economies, small industries along the coast and major waterways undermine the rural society and its values? Why did many prosperous merchants side with the Tories? What role does money and property have on values in the emerging independent state and nation?
Literacy and Revolution: The heroes during the Revolutionary period were men like Franklin, Jefferson and Adams who favored more democracy and self-government. They encouraged self-education and promoted literacy through the written word, i.e., newspapers and books, and through discussion. Groups like the Cttes. of Correspondence in the towns were responsible for spreading the word and encouraging town meeting discussion on the key issues of the day. Before radios and tv, taverns were often the meeting place for men to discuss and/or "get the news." Protest rallies like the Boston Massacre might result from such meetings. How has literacy and citizen education developed from then to today?
MA Constitution: The Constitution of 1780 was not the first to be put forward for ratification. The debates are instructive about the way the new state was to be organized. Find out why the first attempt failed. The second was a convention of delegates representing the towns. Look into what the debates show about attitudes toward religion and education. Who were the major spokesmen? What does the completed document say about literature and literacy?
Shays' Rebellion: The costs of the Revolutionary War brought inflation. High taxes on the land were putting farmers out of business, while the merchants were prospering (farmers felt) from the war unfairly. This was not just a merchant v. farmer or rich v. poor battle. There were also issues of how much central authority should be vested in the state or nation and who should call out its army to quell "uprisings." This rebellion had national implications. The states' convention then meeting to revise the Articles of Confederation led to the writing of a constitution with a much stronger central government to deal with "uprisings" and civil war.
US Constitution and the New Nation: The issue of a stronger central government was settled, but the new Constitution does not say much directly about education. Why not? What kind of partnership was envisioned? The vote in favor of the Constitution in the Massachusetts Ratification Convention was close. Look into the debate and what the non-federalists opposed, including a lack of a bill of rights. Find out about the role of Massachusetts and education in the new nation.
Religion and education: How did the Bill of Rights define freedom of religion? How has the court interpretation changed over the past two centuries? How do religious groups cooperate/conflict with public education aims and programs today?
Academy Movement: The private academy became a quasi-public institution from the end of the 18th to mid-19th century and greatly impacted the public school system. The movement began with the gradual dying-out of the Latin grammar schools and the increasing interest in secular, practical education. Because many district schools watered down the curriculum and lacked high standards, wealthier people turned to private academies which were forging ahead with new teaching tools and subjects and setting a reform example. Find out how qualified support for the academies resulted from townspeople's encouragement of legislative action to make them available to more students.
Change from rural to urban society: The change from farming to an industrial society began on a small scale. Trace its beginnings and what it meant for the small town v. the town with business, industry interests and investments. How did industrialization affect district school support?
Age of Reform 1820s -50s: The wake up call came during this intense period of reform in all areas of society. The education reformers saw districts not doing so well, academies replacing the grammar schools, private schools doing better than public. More and more people were coming to Mass. shores in need of education and services. We will become a nation of strong differences in classes if changes aren't made. Education must be the great equalizer, said the first Commissioner of Education, Horace Mann. Do you agree? What programs did he initiate during his 12 year "reign?" Who supported these changes, opposed them?
Development of Comprehensive High Schools: Opposition by James G. Carter and Horace Mann (and others) to the reliance on academies for secondary education, which were still not open to all, brought new legislation for consolidated districts, better standards and financial support. Boston English High School was the nation's first high school in 1821 (for boys). How did this school serve as a model?What about girls' secondary education? Look into the controversy surrounding public-supported high schools (which didn't finally get settled until Supreme Court decision in 1870s).
The Civil War cut short a remarkable period of reform in the arts, literature, education and welfare. The war was costly in lives and funds. The healing and reconstruction took a long time. The divisions were deep. Then a strong period of nationalism emerged as the urban nation flexed its economic muscle and began to export its culture. How was education a part of this process? The Chicago Centennial Exposition sounded the clarion call for national pride (or national religion?) in 1876. Read the accounts of the day and compare with later analyses from an historical perspective.
The Growth of Cities and Immigration: How did cities come into being? Where did population centers develop? Population statistics, concentrations, can be found in the state and US census and the Historical Atlas of Massachusetts. What was the effect on land use? How did immigration affect state and local government? What new services were needed? Who bore the burden of costs? What level of literacy did the newcomers have and what programs were needed for students and adults?
Child Labor Laws extending compulsory schooling was one way to target the factory children. Who proposed and supported these laws? What role did the labor unions play in gaining public support? Did compulsary attendance work? How was the problem of truancy handled? Since many of the immigrant children worked in the factories because their families needed the money to survive, what support was there for poor immigrant families? How were factory conditions and salaries also addressed as part of the problem of urban Massachusetts (and US)? Night School was available for adults and children 12 years olds and above for immigrants. There was as much emphasis on behavior as language --- a preparation for citizenship.
The Early Childhood - Kindergarten movement: Find out about the Froebel German kindergartens and how they got started in this country in 1860s. Elizabeth Peabody had ideas on adapting Froebel's model. What differences did she propose? Peabody and the Froebel movement influenced Springfield manufacturer Milton Bradley to create teaching aids for pre-schoolers. He was committed to a hands-on approach. Visit the Connecticut Valley Historical Museum in Springfield which now has an exhibit on Milton Bradley that includes his contributions to early education.
The social welfare movement, settlement houses and neighborhood improvement at the end of the century saw kindergarten as a way to aid the urban poor and compensate children for their poor home environment so they would not be as far behind in primary school. Pauline Shaw was a benefactor who helped to set up charity kindergartens. By 1909 there was legislation that all cities and towns over 10,000 should have public kindergartens, but since no $ provided, the movement remained essentially private for some time.
Discipline: One urban education historian (Lazerson) says that Mass. educators in the late 1800s had an idealized version of the past and didn't understand the urban school challenge. They thought it was the morals of the urban immigrant that needed changing. Parents weren't doing their job and didn't understand the traditions. The use of the rod was justified in spite of the current pedagogy of the reform movement to curb its use. Urban schools were more rigid in discipline than town and rural. The urban child was seen as a means to the larger social reform desired. Factory children were the primary targets. Good habits would shape the adult's behavior. Do you agree or disagree?
New Subjects into the Curriculum: Geography and Science became part of teacher training. New textbooks were issued. Trace the impact of these new subjects.
Object Lessons: The importance of concrete objects and hand learning gave an emphasis to the material being used, and encouraged resources for the classroom and field trips. Colonel Francis Wayland Parker was instrumental in getting these ideas a wide audience and in promoting professional development in object lessons. John Dewey, who followed Parker at the University of Chicago Laboratory, was influenced by him and considered him the real father of Progressive Education.
Look into the role of Parker and what he accomplished in Massachusetts before going to Chicago. He was Quincy Public Schools superintendent from 1875-80, and later went to the Boston schools. Quincy has a school now named after Parker and continues many of the traditions Parker instigated. Eugene Creedon, present superintendent at Quincy Public Schools and a collector of Parker memorabilia, is a storehouse of information on the man and the movement. He kindly lent material for the Commonwealth Museum exhibit. See bibliography re. Parker.
Manual Training: Object lessons extended to hand learning for vocational training. By 1900 the teaching of trades was encouraged in Massachusetts. This kind of education was seen as practical and relevant to the growing technical and industrial society. Instead of the negative values of technology, school would teach students how to work and learn trades, but also emphasize traditional values and ethics. Trace the vocational training movement to today.
Teaching Aids: The private academies and forward-thinking schools, like the ungraded Quincy School and English High School, both in Boston, were finding equipment to enrich the classroom by the mid century. By the late 19th century, there were many businesses ready to supply schools. Aids such as maps, globes, telescopes and other laboratory equipment, and science specimens were considered revolutionary additions. Find some of the early catalogues that promoted business competition in this new market and contrast with aids available today.
Rights for women: Women finally got the vote in 1918. Few public offices were held by women for many years after suffrage, but they were allowed by law to serve on school committees after 1870. Check your own school committee records to see when they first served. Women became the primary workforce for the teaching profession. (But not administrative positions. How much has this changed lately?) Opportunities for changing work and civic roles have come more slowly than in education. Look into traditional jobs for women and how World War II offered changes. Find out about Winnie the Welders (Quincy Ship Yards) and Rosie the Riveters. What happened after the men came home from the war? What factors besides the war encouraged greater economic opportunities for women? What role did education play?
Post-War suburbs: city exodus, the new land use and political configurations: Highways have developed to bypass or ring the central cities; industries have located farther out, encouraging the growth of suburbs. The suburbs have become more affluent and schools in these areas provide more educational support. Cities and rural areas have become poorer and less able (or willing) to support schools. What affect has this had on your own community/area?
Changes in the American family: Wars, depressions, drugs, the fast pace of modern society and the information age have all contributed to a different society in which many families suffer divorce and are single-parent today. In many of the two parent families both parents work. In both cases children may be in day-care or are "latch-key" children. How have womens' and mens' roles changed?
Expectations of the schools: Because of these changes in family structure and crises in society, most schools need many specal programs dealing with drugs, crime, AIDS, hunger, teenage pregnancy (many of these problems relating to poverty) that only part of the education budget goes to central education needs and subjects. Have students dissect their local education budget to see where the money comes from and how it is spent. What monies are earmarked in advance? How many of the programs relate to problems in society? the need for greater equality of opportunity?
Influences on children today: In general children spend more time away from home. The family is not the same as it was "traditionally." Churches may not exercise as strong an influence on values and discipline as they once did. The peer group provides strong pressures that can dictate music and consumer tastes and much more. Many older students work and are influenced by the workplace values. Students get strong messages from the media as well, and fads travel fast. Find out what your students think influences them the most? How can the truth of these statements be measured?
Increasing role of Federal Government in Education: The US has moved slowly into this area because of the precedent of local and state action. The change has come through legislation mandating equality of opportunity or through funding grants for defense education or improvement in educational quality: loans, scholarship aid for GI service or need; grant monies in response to Sputnik (for science, math especially); and for teacher training, innovation, etc. Numerous commissions have been established to oversee this legislation. State and local levels administer some of these funds, but today the education budget in Massachusetts reflects only 5 cents on the dollar from federal funds and local /state still carry the major burden (of remaining 95 cents about 60-40 local/state share. The Mass. share has gone as low as 30 % and will increase to 50% with Ed. Reform Bill.)
Lifetime learning: Adult education has gotten a boost through promotion of community colleges at the state and county levels. Find out about public support of higher education and opportunities for older citizens. What is going on in your county or region? Does your school reach out to adults?
Changing Work Requirements: What kinds of jobs are available today and what special skills are needed for them? What changes can we anticipate for the next 10 years? How should our students be preparing? See the Education 2000 SCANS report re. the effects of lack of training, literacy and global competition in the workplace. Contact the US Office of Education in the resource listing.
Inclusiveness---Special needs: The federal government has also become involved in extending schooling opportunities to students with special needs, learning disabled, handicapped, etc. The state and local roles have increased here as well. Study this interrelationship and the effect of the programs to mainstream special students.
Inclusiveness---Multiculturalism: What does multicultural education really mean? In what ways has your curriculum and teaching changed because of it? What changes for your students? What is today's debate on "political correctness" about and what misunderstandings confuse the issue?
Racial issues: Action has centered on federal laws and court rulings re. desegregation in the schools and busing: how much progress? and what types of problems? Where are we at today?
Immigration and English as a second language:- What is the most effective way to teach English? How can the traditions of culturally pluralistic Massachusetts be preserved while new immigrants learn English and acceptance to school programs? Progress and problems in literacy, bilingualism?
Space Age as the new frontier: After Sputnik a science and math spurt and labs flourished. What impact did the Cold War and space competition have on schools? What about the competition in global economics today and its effect on schools?
Electronic age & information explosion: In the global village there is instant feedback--- the media is the message. The US is the biggest exporter of news and popular culture around the world today, through TV, fast food restaurants and denim jeans. Many foreign countries (and some people within the US) fear the loss of their own culture and traditions as a result. Is this possible? Debate the pros and cons of the growth of TV for news and entertainment and its relation to education--- for good or bad? What is all this talk about multimedia and the information highway. Is it good for the schools?
National Assessments: These report cards have usually been bad. The cycle of blame and suggestions for reform have followed, but often without producing major changes. Consider the many national and independent reports since World War II and look for results. How have Education 2000 reports and its present successor Education for the 21st Century affected Massachusetts so far? What is happening about national standards today? Are there specific facts each student should know in order to graduate or a more general core of learning that should become part of national standards?
Education debates: Related to these assessments are arguments about philosophy of education--- sometimes classical education v. progressive education; sometimes tug of war between conservative "back to basics" and innovation, critical thinking, hands-on, etc.; sometimes mixtures. What are the debates about school choice? Vouchers? Public funding for private schools? Have students look for books and news articles on these issues.
State Action: Massachusetts has had several reorganization plans. After a 2 1/2 year study in the late 60s and early 70s, the Willis Harrington bill didn't go anywhere in spite of recommendations. Why not? Look into the funding aspects. Several more bills were passed before the most recent 1993 Education Reform Bill. What lessons have we learned about implementation?
Education Reform Bill of 1993: This bill is ambitious and must be implemented (including funded) over a seven year period. Both the Governor's Secretary of Education and the Department of Education have responsibilities under it. The Department is now planning implementation recommendations and meetings are being held throughout the state. One priority in the first year program will be a new basis for school finances -per pupil minimums and a different local-state share. School-based management will rearrange local administration. Parent councils will involve the community more. Teacher tenure is out. These are major changes. How is your community preparing for these changes and how much information is shared within your school? How can students keep the class informed and become involved?
A Core Curriculum and Subject Frameworks: The common core of learning is a statement of broad educational goals of what students should know at the end of their schooling. Frameworks identify important contents in subject areas, suggest teaching methods and instructional materials, and provide base for student evaluation. Advisory committees are being set up in all subject areas. If you are not already on one of these committees, find out who is representing you and get any reports available. Have students consider what they think should be included in their core curriculum.
Massachusetts Education On-Line: No one disputes the need for computer education and the need for systems and processes; you can't remember everything! But in what ways can computers enhance learning? What pitfalls to avoid? How can education technology be made accessible fairly? Have students discuss the report on the Reform Bill's proposed "Mass. Education on Line" which is now being explained in hearings around the state. Send your class comments to the legislature.
Teachers and Tenure: There are new requirements for certification and professional performance standards. The role of principals and superintendents has been strengthened in the hiring and firing of teachers. What safeguards are there for protection of teachers against unfair firing? Teacher unions came up with their own reform bill, which didn't pass. Compare the present bill with the unions on teacher standards and accountability. How did unions get started and what have their accomplishments been? What have been the benefits and problems of tenure?
Funding Equity: "Education Reform, including equity in funding education, has been a national issue for several years. Massachusetts is the first state to completely overhaul its finanacial scheme without a court order. The foundation budget recognizes that in order to provide a decent education, a certain minimum amount of money must be available to do the job correctly. In addition, the state's highest court has recently held that education is a constitutional right under the Massachusetts Constitution. The combination of strong new education legislation and court opinion should help to guarantee that the quality of education which a child receives will no longer be dependent upon the wealth of the community in which the student resides."
Barbara Gardner, Vice-Chair, Joint Legislative Committee on Education
Court Case: Have your class debate how public schools should be funded and what kind of equity is possible. Study the case brought by students of several urban schools. Write to the Civil Liberties Union of Mass., who represented the plaintiffs, for more information on the case. See resource list.